2. Water 
2.1 Preamble
Water is critical to life of all biological being. But unfortunately data in respect of its use for animal husbandry in various regions of India is largely lacking. The western standards estimating of water requirement may not be relevant to project its actual need or deficiency in India. But this data along with India's data on water use in various areas have to be extrapolated to get a comprehension on water needed and available for animal husbandry in India.

water for life. Uneven land surface help rainwater to get distributed through ravines and rivers to low-lying land or return to the sea. Through the craters/ fissures created by growing roots of trees, burrowing fauna and/ or by the seismic changes, water gains entry into aquifers below the ground. Evaporation, percolation and/or agitation provide a level of fitness to water, which had been used, by man and animals from time immemorial. To meet her/his growing demand for water, (wo)man has dug wells, ponds or similar waterholes, diverted the course of rivers, bore tube wells and even collected water in big and small dams for power generation, irrigation, drinking water supply to towns and sometimes for amusement.

2.2 The water situation in India 

India today is in the throes of a water crisis in urban and rural areas. The irony is that in many parts of the country there is scarcity amidst plenty. The tradition that the Indian people had to manage their water demands by harvesting water and catching every drop of rainwater, has eroded, thanks to the takeover by the State. Public participation has almost disappeared." [Potential of water harvesting in India: some case studies India Khurana, Coordinator, Natural Resource Management Unit Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India. 

Since in India animals are reared alongside the human dwellings, ideally, water has to be available to people (and animals) at all times in a form they can use viz. consumption, cleaning, waste disposal, agriculture, industry etc. Achieving this depends on adequacy of supply and access in a quantity & quality that is acceptable to the community. To be useful the supply/ distribution must be dependable. Each use of water contributes its share of contamination and/or pollution ultimately converting "good water" to "black water". Therefore, to be holistic water management has to consider both the use and disposal of water including wastewater. 

2.3 Waste Water

Wastewater is used water. It includes substances such as human waste, food scraps, oils, soaps and chemicals. In homes, this includes water from sinks, showers, bathtubs, toilets, washing machines and dishwashers. Businesses and industries also contribute their share of used water that must be cleaned. Wastewater also includes storm runoff. Although some people assume that the rain that runs down the street during a storm is fairly clean, it isn't. Harmful substances that wash off roads, parking lots, and rooftops can harm other water sources. In India's situation, the water used for washing animals and their sheds must be considered. 

Nature has an amazing ability to cope with small amounts of water wastes and pollution*, but it would be overwhelmed if we didn't treat the billions of gallons of wastewater and sewage produced every day before releasing it back to the environment. Treatment plants reduce pollutants in wastewater to a level nature can handle [ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/wuww.html]. *Nature's task becomes arduous when density of human/ animal population increases at one place or when the life style and/ or husbandry becomes water intensive. 

2.4 Quantifying water requirement

India's projected use of water is 105 **mham in 2025 AD, up from 38 mham in 1974. While the demand for irrigation water is expected to increase from 35 mham to 77 mham, the demand for domestic and industrial uses, which are highly polluting uses, is expected to shoot up from 3 mham in 1974 to 28 mham in 2025 AD. Of the 105 mham use projected for 2025, some 70 mham is expected to come from surface water and about 35 mham from groundwater. This exclusive reliance on river waters and groundwater is already leading to a number of problems. [** mham= million hectare meter] 

Use of different parameters of measurement of water often makes it difficult to correctly appreciate its requirement. 

Minimum amount of water required to meet basic needs of man vary from 20-50 liters per person per day. Fixing an average does not ensure equity in availability as lower availability of some is hidden by excess use by others [www.thewaterpage.com/basic_needs.htm]. The daily consumption of water for animals varies from 30gpd to 3gpd (ie.100 liter to 15 liter per day) as per species, breed and size. Birds consume 175-275 liter per thousand per day.

2.5 Drinking water 

94% of urban population and 71% of rural population is served drinking water (both combined 82%) i.e. nearly 19% people still have no access to drinking water. Concept of potable water and the way it is produced vary with the convention and perception of clean water. Their standards vary widely in the west and the east. Regularity of water supply, its storage and distribution has become a major problem of developing world. Energy used for collection and distribution of water also varies. (Wo)manpower, draught animal power, hydrostatic power, electric/ oil driven motor etc. are in use. Solar or wind power are now being occasionally envisaged in some parts of India. 

2.6 Water use rationale

2.6.1. Conventional use of water: Depending on the availability and the geophysical condition of land, water for consumption is collected from springs, rivers, ponds, wells or water taps supplied by civic authorities. Traditionally in rural India water from various sources had different use. For example, well water is generally used for drinking or feeding cattle. It was customary to check the well water quality before selecting a site for a dwelling. The same source of water is considered fit for animal consumption. Ponds were generally used for bathing and are kept clean by fish & snails living in them and oxygenated by water plants. The river/ canal water is used for bathing, for washing livestock or for laundering. Constant agitation helped aeration. The system ensured optimal use and reduced wastage/ loss. 

But the system of collection and use of water vary within India. Though wells are normally dug to reach aquifers, In places like Rajasthan there are collection wells that store rain water, In Mizoram most (if not all) houses have made facilities for rain water harvesting and water thus collected is used for all community needs including animal husbandry. Though most rural communities do not process water before use, some people use tripod filters, muslin cloth or add herbs or roots to purify water. Some communities use sunlight for purifying water to be given to nursing mothers soon after childbirth. However, urban dwellers by and large prefer to use municipal water considering it to be safe. Changed life style has brought in changes in the rationale for the use of water. 

Sanitation

Globally, 86% of urban population and 38% of rural population has access to some level of sanitation (both combined 60%). In Asia, 78% of urbanites and 31% of rural people has some access to sanitation. 52% people still have access to proper sanitary service. Garbage clearance efficacy in Indian cities varies from 20% to 40%. On average, 15,000 liters of treated, safe, drinking water is used to flush 35 kilograms of faeces and 500 liters of urine per person every year. This conversion of clean water into 'black water' is a massive waste of water. In developing countries 90 percent of this sewage is flushed into surface waters, polluting rivers, lakes and coastal areas. This can spread disease and lower the oxygen content of the water bodies, leading to increased algae growth and eutrophication. [Eutrophication is a condition in an aquatic ecosystem where high nutrient concentrations suffocates] 

In recent years a new trend has been emerging- throughout the developing world. Increasing amounts of money are now being spent on the rehabilitation of water services which have previously been installed but which have fallen into disrepair. 

2.7.Water use of the western animal production system 

Water is used in large volumes for animal production and product processing specially for beef cattle production. For each hamburger passed up in US, as much water is used as taking 40 showers with a low-flow nozzle [www.api4animals.org/doc.asp?ID=36]. 

In order to meet the demand for water they pump more water out of aquifers each year than rain can replenish. [water.usgs.gov/watuse/wulv.html] Nearly half of all water used in U.S. is diverted to meat production. To produce 1lb beef takes an estimated 2,500 gallons of water. 25 gallons of water is needed to produce one lb of wheat. Unlike India, meat is a staple food of the US community.

2.7.1 The west is finding it increasingly difficult to dispose animal waste, livestock wastes of animals that are fed mainly on concentrates contain harmful quantities of phosphorus, nitrogen, bacteria, and feed additive residues, including variety of drugs & chemicals (such as arsenic, selenium, copper, and zinc). As had been said earlier, animal wastes have already been identified in drinking water in some states of USA. 'Spills' is also implicated for causing memory loss, confusion, acute skin burning etc. 

It is reported that animal farms have now replaced factories as the biggest polluters of America's waterways. Dumping of animal waste to the sea in 10 states alone has killed more than 13 million fish. [www.api4animals.org/doc.asp] 

2.8 Animal husbandry of India 

Perhaps there is no specific study on the water use of various live stock endeavors in the backyard or in conventional animal husbandry of India. But it is reasonably assumed that the quantity requirement especially in rural India is far less than that of west. There is considerable difference between rural, semi-urban, urban, tribal and nomadic life style including the pattern of animal husbandry and hence in the pattern and volume of water use. Difference of life style exists among the various ethnic groups of each region; water use hence varies.

2.8.1 Sanitation

The conventional animal waste cleaning systems include preparation of dung cakes, collection in dung pits to be cured and used as manure. These systems are not water intensive. Dung is in fact a co-product of animal rearing system in India. Indian cattle and buffaloes fed on 'high fiber-low concentrate' diet produce (by a modest estimate) more than 800 MT (million tons) of fiber rich dung every year. Such dung can be easily kneaded and dried into what is called as "dung cakes". Around 300 MT of dung is burned in the form of cakes for cooking energy and the rest is used as manure. Water use for washing livestock is minimum and is more often done at water holes or the well water, which is recycled for vegetable production. 

Use of manure gas plant especially the cow dung gas plants though is low in water consumption, has not caught up due to some operational problems. Such difficulties vary from region to region and from season to season. Animal waste (biomass) of Indian live-stock containing large proportion of fiber and digested plant residue, help reduce the soil abuse caused through overuse of chemical fertilizers; it also retains water needed to sustain crops. Being cured the slurry from biogas plants is free from pests and parasites and is safe to handle. 

Mixed livestock farming like combing goat farm or piggery with fish culture is practiced in some nations in Southeast Asia. Poultry litter and dung are also used feed fish. But whether its extensive use is safe has to be scientifically assessed in various agro-climatic regions (zones) of India. Whether it directly reduces water use is a matter to be seen. 

2.9. Animals role in water/ moisture conservation

Conventional Animal husbandry of India is not water intensive. Reduced water use, be it for drinking, washing or waste clearance can stall the incumbent water resource crunch in the years to come. Most of India's traditional breeding tracts are in rain fed areas. The pressure of selection imposed by climate, soil type, altitude, available food supply, endemic diseases, parasites and management techniques resulted in breeds that withstand harsh climatic variations of the region they belong. A good majority of livestock of India is migratory. During draught@, the herders migrate with their animals to areas where crop residues/ common property and water are available. Not only do animals help generate income for the herders but would also enrich the land with their dung and urine. The large volumes of biomass are digested and turned back to the same soil. A fine example of harmony between man animal and nature is seen.

The draught is classified as follows: Meteorological Draught is lack of rain as compared to normal rainfall; Hydrological draught occurs when lack of rainfall cannot be made-up through other water source. Agricultural draught results when plantation Livestock start getting affected. 

2.10 Animals as alternate source for waste management

(a). Garbage 

Animals in India convert organic waste to protein. Reports reveal that only 60% to 80% of urban garbage of our metropolitan cities is cleared by designated agencies. The rest of the garbage scavenged (salvaged would be a better term to use) by the stray animals. Pigs in India play an important role in clearing 20-40% urban garbage. The process helps in waste clearance, waste utilisation and production of protein. It also provides an earning opportunity and affordable protein to the economically weak sections of the community. 

(b). Human waste

As had been seen our urban sewerage (flush) system is water intensive and its disposal is not free from problems. Another common sanitation system in India is the pit latrine, based on the 'drop and store' principle. Although it uses much less water than flush systems, it is not suitable for densely populated urban areas or where the groundwater table is high. The groundwater will be contaminated from seepage and/ or during floods. Nutrients and organic matter such as nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium that are plentiful in urine and feces and which provide, carbon and condition the soil are not recycled.

Ecological sanitation, which treats and recycles waste to recover water and nutrients from human excreta and return them into the environment and productive systems, is a safe method; but is prohibitively costly by Indian standards.

China uses pigs in their community toilets for sanitation and waste utilisation. In India such a system though prevalent in some pockets, is not widely recognised. There is ample scope to explore the role of animals and the use of animal waste management for sustainable sanitation provided scientific veterinary intervention is provided (to contain zoonotic diseases).

Use of manure gas plant (cow dung gas or gobar gas plant as it is called in India) though used by a limited urban and rural people (0.3% & 0.1%), is eco-friendly and can be used for human waste disposal along with animal waste for reducing water use and contamination/ pollution. The system is hygienic, ecologically safe as it digests human and animal waste to convert them into slurry, which is, cured manure.

2.11 Water use for irrigation vs Animal husbandry

Two thirds of India's agriculture is in rain fed area. Less than 4% of the cultivable land does fodder cultivation. Land area is by irrigated various means 

Net - 52.9 million hectares

Gross - 70.6 million hectares 

Canals - 17.2 million hectares

Govt. - 16.7 million hectares 

Tanks - 3.2 million hectares 

Wells - 28.9 million hectares

** i.e. 50% of the rice growing area, 86.8% of wheat growing area, 61% of the barley growing areas and 22.7% of maize growing areas are irrigated. 

Irrigation potential in India has reached the peak already due to utilisation of most available sources. India has arid, tropical and temperate regions; it has waste/ fallow lands, valleys, deltas, flood planes, hills, deserts etc. The rivers in the south of India generally dry up during summer. The rivers of the northern states of India are more or less perennial, but during rains they flood large plains. The flood plain management limit use of land to part of the year. While drought affects production adversely, overall effect of flood is not uniformly negative. Flood enriches Soil and hence enhances the production in subsequent cultivation. 

Since the land available in India is limited the same land has to be used for fodder production. Multiple cropping requires repeated irrigation. Excessive use of ground water for irrigation depleted water reserve in some areas. Irrational irrigation (for multiple cropping in regions with poor drainage) resulted in flood, salinity etc in some states. In Punjab and Haryana where the green revolution took roots first, part of the arable land is under constant threat of flooding. The dams constructed in India so far have not been uniformly irrigating as much areas as projected in their plan proposals. The cost of maintenance of some dams and canals [desilting of canals in areas with loose soil involves very high maintenance cost] need be studied for their cost effectiveness and impact on production (positive or negative) in real terms. An impact assessment of the dams or its evaluation in real terms has to consider the cultural, social, economic, health, fiscal impact.

Some canals remain dry except during rains when sluice gates of the dams are opened to let out excess water. Catchments are used as crocodile nursery or water park. The cost of engaging engineers, technicians, patwaris and skilled & unskilled labour to maintain dams & canals must be evaluated in terms of production per cusecs of water collected and (if) made available to the farmer or per megawatt of electricity produced? The effect of irrigating poorly drained soil must also be evaluated for their long-term impact like flooding or salinity. Excess irrigation has often depleted ground water. Impact assessment in some part of the world has shown that disease sprung up in some African states. In the African state of Mauritania the incidence of deadly rift valley fever was reported following the construction of dam. A holistic assessment is therefore advisable.

The future animal rearing in India therefore cannot be water intensive as in the west. On the other hand India's conventional animal husbandry can, if judiciously used employed, lower water use and save/ retain water.

Conclusion 

A holistic water management is important while planning animal resource development. It is seen that use of varying parameters (like gallon, liter, cusecs, mham) for projecting volume of water or its requirement has made it difficult for comprehending our water needs. There is no data on the amount of water used for conventional animal husbandry in India. Starting from the first five-year plan India made many dams. An impact assessment of the dams or an evaluation in real terms i.e. cultural, social, economic, health, fiscal etc. would be interesting. Some canals remain dry except during rains when sluice gates are opened to let out excess water. Catchments are used as crocodile nursery or water park. The cost of engaging engineers, technicians, patwaris and skilled & unskilled labour to maintain dams & canals must be evaluated as cost of production per cusecs of water collected and (if) made available to the farmer or per megawatt of electricity produced? 

The effect of irrigating poorly drained soil must also be evaluated for their long-term impacts like flooding or salinity. Excess irrigation has often depleted ground water. Impact assessment in some part of the world has shown that at least some diseases sprung up in some African states. In the state of Mauritania the incidence of deadly rift valley fever was reported following the construction of dam. A holistic assessment is therefore advisable. It is presumed that a water intensive plan for animal production may not suit many regions of India. However, there are immense opportunities to use animals and animal rearing systems to reduce water use and conservation of water in India.

Note: The next part of this paper appearing in December 2003-updates will cover energy and financial input needs. 

2.10 Water use for irrigation vs Animal husbandry

Two thirds of India's agriculture is in rain fed area. Less than 4% of the cultivable land does fodder cultivation. 

Land Area by Irrigated various means 

Net - 52.9 Million Hectares 

Gross - 70.6 Million Hectares 

Canals - 17.2 Million Hectares 

Govt. - 16.7 Million Hectares 

Tanks - 3.2 Million Hectares 

Wells - 28.9 Million Hectares